explored in the following section, that foreign and state-linked influence operations are using COVID-19 disinformation and propaganda to promote anti-democratic political and geopolitical goals. Domestic and foreign actors are also using fear and confusion around COVID-19 to manipulate societal prejudices and hatred for political purposes often by using deceptive techniques to amplify divisive and polarizing narratives. The widespread sharing and uptake of hate speech, misinformation and disinformation in the pandemic context are fueled by the same systemic and cognitive challenges that existed prior to COVID-19. For example: ƒ If journalists cannot operate independently or safely, or if they do not conduct rigorous investigations, the public may be more likely to turn to dubious information sources or be unable to distinguish good from bad actors. ƒ Digital and media literacy levels impact whether individuals are able to discern credible information from misinformation or disinformation. ƒ Lack of campaign finance or anti-corruption regulations and oversight pertaining to domestic political actors’ use of social media allows the use of disinformation and hate speech tactics with impunity. ƒ Financial incentives to conduct disinformation campaigns that reach large audiences further muddy the information space. ƒ Preexisting social cleavages create easy targets for exploitation by politically and ideologically driven actors. IFES designed an initiative to strengthen the digital literacy of educators and students in response to disinformation and false narratives around COVID-19. In April, IFES organized a two-part webinar titled, “Disinformation and Pandemic: How to Protect Yourself From Manipulation on the Internet,” for its network of 30 partner universities throughout Ukraine. The webinar provided educators with an understanding of current models of digital content dissemination and consumption, as well as the instruments used to manipulate public opinion. It prepared educators with practical tips to identify false narratives and disinformation during the pandemic. -6- All of these factors continue to operate during the pandemic, and COVID-19 may in fact amplify them. During the pandemic, newsrooms have laid off and furloughed large numbers of journalists due to financial strain that many media outlets were already facing before the pandemic.11 Opportunistic actors have also built social media audiences by peddling COVID-19 disinformation to profit from paid advertising.12 This paper will briefly discuss the different layers of information integrity challenges during the COVID-19 pandemic. It will first examine individually perpetuated viral misinformation and hate speech. It will then turn to domestic influence operations, examining how state-linked actors are using the pandemic to political advantage by directing disinformation toward their own populations and spinning narratives that perpetuate intercommunal division. The paper will then analyze how foreign actors are using COVID-19 to open a new front in their information warfare directed at democratic rivals. In light of this background, the paper will outline key findings that draw connections between disinformation, COVID-19 and elections before providing recommendations to mitigate potential harms. International Foundation for Electoral Systems