Contents 2.4 2.5 2.6 3. The Right to Freedom of Opinion and Expression ...................................546 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 4. Freedom of religion and public school instruction.....................................540 State religion and religious minorities ...........................................................543 Conscientious objection on religious grounds.............................................544 Relevant legal provisions.................................................................................546 Article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights .................................................................................................................548 3.2.1 Choice of language in court .......................................................................549 3.2.2 Advertising ..............................................................................................549 3.2.3 Defamation and dissemination of false information ...................................550 3.2.4 Denial of crimes against humanity and advocacy of hatred.........................552 3.2.5 Threats to national security and public order .............................................554 3.2.6 Freedom of the press .................................................................................557 3.2.7 Human rights defenders............................................................................561 Article 9 of the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights.............561 3.3.1 Freedom of the press .................................................................................562 3.3.2 Freedom to express opinions .....................................................................564 3.3.3 Human rights defenders............................................................................564 Article 13 of the American Convention on Human Rights.......................565 3.4.1 The individual and collective dimensions of freedom of expression, including the role of the mass media ..........................................................567 3.4.2 Freedom of expression and the concept of public order in a democratic society ......................................................................................................570 3.4.3 Restrictions on freedom of expression: Meaning of the term “necessary to ensure” ................................................................................571 3.4.4 Indirect control of the mass media: The case of Ivcher Bronstein v. Peru ....................................................................572 3.4.5 Article 13(2) and the Compulsory Licensing of Journalists case ......573 Article 10 of the European Convention on Human Rights ......................575 3.5.1 Basic interpretative approach to freedom of expression................................576 3.5.2 Freedom of the press .................................................................................579 3.5.3 Freedom of expression of elected members of professional organizations.......589 3.5.4 Freedom of expression of elected politicians ................................................592 3.5.5 Freedom of artistic expression ...................................................................594 The Rights to Freedom of Association and Assembly...............................597 4.1 4.2 Relevant legal provisions.................................................................................597 Articles 21 and 22 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights ..................................................................................................599 4.2.1 Origin and meaning of the “in a democratic society” concept.......................599 4.2.2 Freedom of association..............................................................................601 4.2.3 Freedom of assembly.................................................................................602 4.3. Articles 10 and 11 of the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights..................................................................................................604 4.3.1 Freedom of association..............................................................................604 4.4 Articles 15 and 16 of the American Convention on Human Rights........606 Human Rights in the Administration of Justice: A Manual on Human Rights for Judges, Prosecutors and Lawyers xix