need to be informed by operational considerations, particularly around any new mitigating mechanisms that need to be introduced to protect the health of stakeholders involved in the election process, along with new training and education imperatives. It may also need to account for modifications to laws or regulations governing elections that are required as a result of new processes being put in place. Modifying Election Processes Beyond the postponement, suspension or cancellation of elections, many countries are considering modifications to how elections are conducted to adapt to the circumstances presented by the pandemic. In some instances, this includes significant changes in how people vote: for example, through the introduction or expansion of postal voting. Discussions around internet voting have also gained momentum, but with significant voices opposing the idea of introducing it in this context.46 In other instances, it involves more minor, but important, modifications to election procedures to protect public health. As IFES has noted elsewhere with respect to decision-making in response to the pandemic, “it is essential that election management bodies (EMBs) ... make sensible and well-informed decisions ... [that are] informed by health authorities and might vary depending on each country’s public health capabilities, level of spread of the disease, and other contextual factors.” 47 Consultation with political parties and candidates, along with extensive public outreach and communication, are needed as well. Measures to avoid crowded in-person polling stations, such as extending At the same time, when changes advance voting, curbside voting and mail-in ballots, would allow easier access are being considered, careful for people with disabilities and older citizens in all elections. consideration must be given to the legal framework underpinning elections. In many cases election laws set out specific processes and timelines that may require amendment to account for operational changes. This is true not only for polling but also other parts of the electoral process, discussed further below. An understanding of the legal framework, the amendments that might be required, and legal certainty and stability are very important. Amendments in a crisis situation present both risks and opportunities. Governments wield significant power during a state of emergency, and the potential for this power to be abused for political gain cannot be overstated. To guard against this, it is important to understand the different types of electoral integrity vulnerabilities that exist: (1) electoral fraud, which is deliberate wrong-doing by election officials or stakeholders that distorts the will of the voters; (2) electoral malpractice, which is the breach by a professional of his or her relevant duty of care, resulting from carelessness or neglect; and (3) systemic manipulation, which is the use of legal provisions, rules and procedures that run counter to democratic principles and that purposefully distort the will of voters.48 Each of these vulnerabilities can be exacerbated or deliberately introduced in a crisis situation. Systemic manipulation in particular must International Foundation for Electoral Systems -13-