Election Investigations Guidebook › Supervision: During investigation, an investigative body supervises the daily operations of investigators. External institutions monitor the investigative process—for example, ombudsmen or inspectors general. › Evaluation: After the conclusion of operations, internal units and external institutions review an investigative body’s investigation, management, and administration to provide feedback and reflect on lessons learned. Review ensures a mechanism for remedying and punishing misconduct or malpractice.345 The following sections discuss both internal and external accountability mechanisms in more detail. a. Internal Mechanisms for Accountability Investigative bodies are in the best position to assess allegations of misconduct and to develop rules that are appropriate to their context.346 Because accountability connotes the responsibility for giving directions and preparing investigators for their operations, it applies to the actions of individual staff, supervisors, and the investigative body as a whole.347 Therefore, investigative bodies should develop clear systems of internal review and evaluation, together with procedures for addressing misconduct that are appropriate to the institutional structure and culture. To enable external review, investigative bodies should publicly disseminate the relevant rules that regulate the institution’s scope of work and investigator conduct. 348 For example, codes of conduct should be made accessible to citizens, political parties, and other interested stakeholders. Internal accountability mechanisms require an effective chain of command within an investigative body and could include reporting systems and internal disciplinary measures.349 Whatever mechanism is employed, the United Nations emphasizes that the chain of referral “should be clear, with time limits and explicit standards governing the categories of allegation that must be referred 345 Cf. id. 346 See U.N. Handbook on Practical Anti-Corruption Measures for Prosecutors and Investigators, supra note 80, at 41. 347 Cf. U.N. Handbook on Police Accountability, Oversight, and Integrity, supra note 343, at 11. 348 OSCE Guidebook for Democratic Policing, supra note 336, ¶ 11. 349 U.N. Handbook on Police Accountability, Oversight, and Integrity, supra note 343, at 11. 106