INTRODUCTION The effective resolution of electoral complaints is integral for the integrity and legitimacy of an election. If not handled properly, election claims and disputes can destabilize governments, undermine public trust, and lead to violence. However, the credibility of the electoral process can be strengthened if the laws and procedures that govern dispute resolution are coherent, enforceable, and provide access to effective remedies. In the 2011 Guidelines for Understanding, Adjudicating, and Resolving Disputes in Elections (GUARDE), IFES articulated standards and best practices for adjudicating electoral complaints.1 During the development of GUARDE, IFES conducted research on adjudication-related legal processes, revealing that many adjudication bodies are asked to make decisions based on incomplete claims that lack corroborating or substantive evidence. Insufficient admissible evidence is a particularly vexing challenge that adjudicators face when working to resolve disputes or to sanction violations in elections. For this specific dispute type, courts may be required to determine whether certain irregularities had an outcome-determinative impact on election results. Similarly, for certain election offenses, such as vote buying, the standard of evidence required to initiate prosecution may be high and, depending on how the offense is codified, different types of evidence may be required to prove the act, intent, and impact on the criminal burden of proof—beyond a reasonable doubt. Another widespread problem affecting frameworks for electoral dispute resolution is a lack of predefined and practicable fact-finding and adjudication procedures. In IFES’ experience, most countries seem to conform to one of three different scenarios: 1| Legal and procedural frameworks for elections incorporate a country’s civil procedure framework wholesale, and the due process guarantees 1 See IFES, Guidelines for Understanding, Adjudicating, and Resolving Disputes in Elections (GUARDE) (Chad Vickery ed., 2011), https://www.ifes.org/sites/default/files/guarde_final_publication_0.pdf [hereinafter GUARDE]. 15