Introduction Court, Constitutional Court or special electoral court) is the forum for resolving such claims, although in some countries an administrative body separate from the judiciary is assigned the task. In still other countries, directly challenging an election’s outcome might not be permitted, with all election challenges and complaints handled by the regular criminal court system. Other election disputes are often much less significant, such as determining which political party is permitted to campaign on a certain day or in a particular location according to electoral regulations. These less serious disputes may be decided by election commissions at a subordinate or local level. The phrase complaint adjudication is another term used to describe the process for handling grievances raised by political parties, candidates, voters and other electoral participants. Complaints arising within the initial phases of an election, in the pre-election campaign period, or on polling day are generally objections to an alleged denial of rights (perhaps voter registration or candidate certification) or allegations of improper conduct (breaches of the election law, regulations or procedures) rather than merely disagreements or competing claims. These types of complaints often pose overwhelming problems for the election authorities, courts or other bodies that comprise the EDR system because of the substantial quantity and urgency of complaints arising during the compressed election timeframe. For the most part, “election complaints adjudication” can be seen as largely synonymous with EDR, but covering a wider range of situations and focused on the formal judicial or administrative process for resolving them. Complaints of serious misconduct that constitute criminal violations of the election law (or related laws) may deserve consideration for criminal prosecution. Allegations of criminal misconduct are almost always directed to police, prosecutors and courts for investigation and potential prosecution — outside of an administrative system for EDR — although special electoral complaint bodies or judicial tribunals may be established that include criminal violations of the law within their jurisdiction. The following chapters frequently refer to Electoral Management Bodies (EMBs), a catch-all term for the government agency or division responsible for organizing, coordinating, and overseeing the election process. The ex- 7