Universal human rights instruments of the United Nations 2. Electoral justice and other related concepts Figure 2.2. Examples of international human rights instruments that establish electoral rights Regional human rights instruments* Universal Declaration of Human Rights of 1948 ARTICLES 20 and 21 Convention on the Political Rights of Women of 1952 ARTICLES 1, 2, 3 and 5 African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights of 1981 ARTICLE 13 American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man of 1948 ARTICLES 20, 21 and 22 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights of 1966 ARTICLES 2, 19, 21, 22 and 25 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women of 1979 ARTICLE 7 American Convention on Human Rights of 1969 ARTICLE 23 First protocol of the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms of 1950 ARTICLE 3 * In addition, mention should be made of other regional instruments, such as the Charter of Paris for a New Europe of 1990; articles 15 and 16 of the American Convention on Human Rights of 1969 (article 15 on the Right of Assembly and article 16 on Freedom of Association); sections 5, 6, 7 and 8 of the Document of the Copenhagen Meeting of the Conference on the Human Dimension of the Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe of 1990 (CSCE, although it is not binding); and other instruments that have emanated from international and intergovernmental organizations, such as the Inter-Parliamentary Union’s Declaration on Criteria for Free and Fair Elections of 1994, and the Harare Commonwealth Declaration of 1991. 35. Among the main electoral rights are the right to vote and to run for elective office in free, fair, genuine and periodic elections conducted by universal, free, secret and direct vote; the right to gain access, in equal conditions, to elective public office; the right to political association for electoral purposes (e.g. the right to establish or join or not join a political party or any other grouping with electoral aims); and other rights intimately related to these, such as the right to freedom of expression, freedom of assembly and petition, and access to information on political-electoral matters. In general, electoral rights realize the political right to participate in the conduct of public affairs, directly or by means of freely elected representatives (see figure 2.3). 36. Electoral rights can be distinguished from other political rights that do not refer to electoral matters. These include, for example: • the right to participation in political affairs through a process which does not involve electoral issues (for example appointments to public positions by simple designation, without elections being required); 13