E Ecuador EDRBs in, 92, 99 EJS in, 40 electoral council (Consejo de Participación Ciudadana y Control Social) in, 102 electoral courts in, 40, 74, 102, 166, 178 EMB in, 74 political parties in, 99 proportional representation in, 153 EDR. See electoral dispute resolution EDRB. See electoral dispute resolution body EDRM. See electoral dispute resolution mechanism EDRS. See electoral dispute resolution system EJS. See electoral justice system electoral code of conduct, 26, 30-6 See also code of conduct electoral courts, 199, 206 See also under individual countries electoral crimes and offences classification of, 41-5 EDRB and, 89, 126-7 examples of, 44-56 legal framework for prosecution of, 43 sanctions for, 40-56 electoral cycle, 3, 6-7, 9, 18-22, 27-8, 75, 143, 145, 148 electoral dispute resolution (EDR) alternative, 183-94 (see alternative electoral dispute resolution) case studies (see electoral dispute resolution (EDR) case studies) classification, 38, 57-82, 133 challenges (see electoral dispute resolution (EDR) challenges) education and, 18, 19, 23, 25-6, 51, 120-1, 197, 206 guarantees, 44, 83, 118-36 international obligations for, 15-6 legal framework, 24-5 mechanisms, 37-56 (see also electoral dispute resolution mechanisms) principles, 15, 23, 83-117, 129, 180-2 electoral dispute resolution body (EDRB) accountability of, 88-9, 95, 109-12 ad hoc, 88-9, 95, 103, 199 appeals to, 196 classification of, 80 cost of, 114-7, 123-5 definition of, 199 design of, 89 impartiality of, 88-9, 94-108, 131, 180 independence of, 29, 88-108, 112, 131 integrity of, 88-9, 112-3 liability of, 88-9, 109-11, 127, 163 performance of, 27, 114 political consensus and, 26 professionalism of, 27-31, 88-9, 94-5, 105, 108-15 sustainability of, 88-9, 104, 114-7 transparency of, 3, 15, 29, 33, 51, 99, 110, 116, 118-21 electoral dispute resolution (EDR) case studies Argentina, 67 Bosnia and Herzegovina, 97 Bhutan, 120-1 Cambodia, 149 Colombia, 73 France, 128 Germany, 71 Japan, 124 Hungary, 127 Luis Patti case (Argentina), 67 ‘Richmond Case’(UK), 124-5 Russia, 140 South Africa, 184 225 Index direct democracy instruments agenda initiatives, 198 citizens’ initiative, 73, 130, 160-2, 198 definition of, 198 recall, 6, 10, 19, 160, 174, 198, 205 referendum, 2, 6, 10, 19, 37, 70-1, 100, 128-9, 157-60, 174, 198, 205 (see also main entry)