limiting their ability to get accurate information. The next paper in this series will cover COVID-19 implications for democratic inclusion. Domestic Influence Operations Domestic and foreign actors are becoming increasingly adept at using disinformation, hate speech and propaganda to exploit existing societal fears and fissures to further their anti-democratic aims. They may accomplish these aims by creating content that reflects their narrative, or by amplifying false narratives already in circulation. For domestic political actors, the incentives to perpetuate false or misleading information about COVID-19 may be linked to political calculations – either wanting to look prepared, exaggerating the level of effort being put into public health measures around elections or misunderstanding the scope or nature of the crisis. A Brazilian fact-checking agency, for example, has identified multiple messages that advance a partisan narrative about the positive contributions of prominent government supporters in the fight against COVID-19, including messages that make false health claims.26 In some instances, state propaganda uses disinformation about government success battling COVID-19 to bolster the strength and legitimacy of the regime in power. In Egypt, for example, state propaganda spread a narrative that COVID-19 was a Western plot that was thwarted by Egyptian intelligence services and that an Egyptian-developed cure was being shared with China and Italy.27 Political actors may also calculate that they can solidify power or drive up turnout for their party or candidate by using disinformation to downplay the crisis or expedite elections before the economic hardships stemming from the pandemic undermine their popularity. For example, the ruling party in Poland was forced to change track after insisting until days before the presidential election scheduled for May 10, 2020, that it would proceed. With a desire to hold elections as early as possible, the ruling party initially downplayed the public health risks and then attempted to hastily adopt countrywide mail-in balloting before finally postponing the election. Additionally, some analysts posit that Brazilian President Jair Bolsonaro is carrying out a concerted disinformation campaign to dissociate himself from the economic impact of COVID-19.28 Political calculations that lead domestic actors to create or perpetuate inaccurate narratives about the public health situation and electoral preparedness for the sake of perceived political advantage is a tension that will continue to play out as election dates approach. In all cases, there is a careful balance to be struck between the importance of elections on the one hand and legitimate public health concerns on the other. Decisions should be structured and consultative, rather than being made in an ad hoc and politically motivated manner. Political actors looking to deflect blame or play to the worst impulses of their majoritarian bases may also deliberately deploy a mix of hate speech and disinformation to heighten interethnic or intercommunity tensions. In India, a gathering at an Islamic event center in mid-March was blamed for the spread of COVID-19, even as other religious congregations also failed to cancel large gatherings or implement other safety measures during that time period. As the number of cases attributed to the gathering increased, the hashtag #CoronaJihad began trending on social media along with messages blaming the entire Muslim community for the spread of the virus. The hashtag appeared nearly 300,000 times and was potentially seen by more than 300 million people.29 This polarizing rhetoric, which was amplified by traditional media, has further entrenched the prejudice against an already-beleaguered minority community.30 As a human rights activist conveyed to the authors, “we are being attacked by two viruses; COVID will eventually be cured. But the more dangerous one is the communal virus. It will take a much longer time to be vanquished.” Hate speech could easily lead to intercommunal tensions and create -8- International Foundation for Electoral Systems