An Integrated Approach to Elections and Conflict Similarly, the pool of permanent or long-term EMB staff may not receive training in conflict management or constructive dialogue. The well-known Building Resources in Democracy, Governance and Elections (BRIDGE) methodology features a unit on electoral security, but interpersonal conflicts and dealing with political party or other stakeholder conflicts could be improved by incorporating mediation and conflict resolution training. If BRIDGE is not used, this type of training could be delivered within local training strategies.12 The EMB leadership is the body that will be at the forefront of resolving tensions and conflicts that arise from alleged irregularities, delays and other process challenges. A basic understanding of negotiation and conflict resolution principles is seen as very valuable for political parties, businesses and local leaders. It is also crucial for the institution at the front line of an electoral process. Security forces also face training gaps in preparation for elections. With the exception of certain post-conflict or ongoing conflict environments, the burden of day-to-day electoral security falls on domestic police services. In many transitional countries, the police force already faces enormous challenges in resources and capacities, and may not have the trust of the public, certain communities or political groups. Competence and credibility gaps cannot be filled in the short time usually available for training security forces in preparation for elections. However, these challenges could be better addressed through increased cooperation with EMBs. Involving the EMB in security training preparation (to ensure the electoral process is explained clearly) and instituting joint sessions would improve Election Day coordination and resolution of problems. EMBs or electoral experts should have some input into training for security forces or hold high-level joint sessions to ensure that electoral procedures are clear to security forces. This will also help ensure that all stakeholders are on the same page in terms of rules of engagement in dealing with security challenges in pre-, post- and Election Day phases. Materials for training security forces can be difficult for those outside the security sector to retrieve from online libraries as well as on the ground. Yet, security officers’ knowledge of electoral processes and the ability to work with poll workers at the community level and the EMB leadership at a high level is crucial for efficient and peaceful elections. This gap in training cooperation is another example of the sector-specific focus mentioned earlier. That is, those donors and implementing partners who work with the security sector are often not well connected with those who work in other areas of development. A different group of donors and experts generally focuses on security reform and training, and this group is not always involved in donor coordination meetings or other joint programs that focus on elections. Even when the level of coordination for training and operations in the field is high, it often begins at the last minute. Coordination was difficult to achieve in South Sudan in the lead up to the elections in April 2010, when a great deal of civilian and UN aid were directed toward the electoral process. The election security challenges were extensive. Security sector reform had proceeded slowly since 2005. The signing of the Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) left the newly formed South Sudan Police Service (SPSS) with large numbers of marginally trained police involved in unresolved power struggles between the Sudan People’s Liberation Army (SPLA), one of the principle belligerents in the decades-long civil war. Ahead of the April 2010 elections, there were many examples of the SPLA and the public disregarding SPSS authority.13 Yet coordination and training on election 12 BRIDGE is a modular professional development program with a particular focus on electoral processes. The five BRIDGE partners are the Australian Electoral Commission (AEC), International IDEA, International Foundation for Electoral Systems (IFES), United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the United Nations Electoral Assistance Division (UNEAD). For more information, see http://bridgeproject.org/. 13 Much of the on-the-ground knowledge comes from interviews with local electoral and government officials across South Sudan conducted by IFES’ electoral conflict assessment team in March 2009; for a review of the complexities involved specifically with reforming the South Sudan Police Service, see Alfred Sebit Lokuji, Abraham Sewonet Abatneh, Chaplain Kenyi Wani, Police Reform in Southern Sudan, NSI and CPDS, June 2009. 10