20 BRNOVICH v. DEMOCRATIC NATIONAL COMMITTEE Opinion of the Court like “majority vote requirements,” “anti-single shot provisions,” 12 and a “candidate slating process.” 13 See Gingles, 478 U. S., at 37 (internal quotation marks omitted). Factors two, six, and seven (which concern racially polarized voting, racially tinged campaign appeals, and the election of minority-group candidates), ibid., have a bearing on whether a districting plan affects the opportunity of minority voters to elect their candidates of choice. But in cases involving neutral time, place, and manner rules, the only relevance of these and the remaining factors is to show that minority group members suffered discrimination in the past (factor one) and that effects of that discrimination persist (factor five). Id., at 36–37. We do not suggest that these factors should be disregarded. After all, §2(b) requires consideration of “the totality of circumstances.” But their relevance is much less direct. We also do not find the disparate-impact model employed in Title VII and Fair Housing Act cases useful here. The text of the relevant provisions of Title VII and the Fair Housing Act differ from that of VRA §2, and it is not obvious why Congress would conform rules regulating voting to —————— 12 Where voters are allowed to vote for multiple candidates in a race for multiple seats, single-shot voting is the practice of voting for only one candidate. “ ‘ “Single-shot voting enables a minority group to win some at-large seats if it concentrates its vote behind a limited number of candidates and if the vote of the majority is divided among a number of candidates.” ’ ” Gingles, 478 U. S., at 38–39, n. 5 (quoting City of Rome v. United States, 446 U. S. 156, 184, n. 19 (1980)); see also United States Commission on Civil Rights, The Voting Rights Act: Ten Years After 206–207 (1975). 13 Slating has been described as “a process in which some influential non-governmental organization selects and endorses a group or ‘slate’ of candidates, rendering the election little more than a stamp of approval for the candidates selected.” Westwego Citizens for Better Govt. v. Westwego, 946 F. 2d 1109, 1116, n. 5 (CA5 1991). Exclusion from such a system can make it difficult for minority groups to elect their preferred candidates. See, e.g., White v. Regester, 412 U. S. 755, 766–767, and n. 11 (1973) (describing one example).